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Descriptive Vocational Decision-Making Models

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Tiedeman-O'Hara Model: Tiedeman (1961), and Tiedeman and O'Hara (1963) developed a VDM model which they named a "paradigm of differentiation and integration in attempting rational solutions to the problems of one's vocational situation [1963, p. 37]." The problem-solving process is initiated by the experiencing of a vocational problem and by the recognition that a decision must be made. In later writings, Tiedeman refers to vocational problems as "discontinuities" (Tiedeman, 1964, 1965; Tiedeman and Field, 1961).

Descriptive Vocational Decision-Making Models

Tiedeman and O'Hara divide the process into two periods, called Anticipation and Implementation-Adjustment that distinguish between behavior prior to and following instrumental action on the decision. (Only the Anticipation period will be discussed here.) The Anticipation period is subdivided into four stages, representing discrete changes in the condition of the decision. The decision maker may reverse himself in the order of stages, but advancement predominates over time. Since decisions interconnect, person may be at an advanced stage on one particular decision, yet at an earlier stage with regard to another decision.



The first stage, called Exploration, accounts for trial-and-error efforts to differentiate among alternate goals. Activity is principally imaginary as the decision maker attempts to give order and meaning to several possible goals and to the context (Tiedeman calls it "field") of each goal. During exploration, fields are relatively transitory, highly imaginary ideas about what the self might be like in later situations-situations specifically associated with a possible goal. In short, the decision maker attempts to take the measure of himself in relation to each alternative goal as he senses it.

The next three stages, Crystallization, Choice, and Clarification, are relatively inseparable. Crystallization describes attempts to clarify the order and pattern of goals and their fields. Assessment of personal values and their bases is a primary activity. Goals are compared on the basis of competing demands, costs and returns, advantages and disadvantages, and take on the qualities of definiteness, clarity, complexity, and rationality. Thought about the problem becomes more stable (less random), durable, reliable. The Choice stage involves commitment to one goal and its field, which, in turn, orients the person to act. The particular commitment is probably a function of qualities of the alternatives such as complexity, clarity, and "degrees of freedom." The certainty of a choice orientation (its "motive power") is probably the product of the complexity and antagonism of alternatives. The Clarification stage, brought on by doubt experienced during the waiting period between choice and action, involves attempts to perfect the image of self in the later situation.

Hilton's Model: A career decision-making model based on complex information-processing mechanisms was outlined by Hilton (1962). Although clearly influenced by Herbert Simon's work in human problem solving (Newell, Shaw and Simon, 1958; Simon, 1955, 1958), Hilton borrowed the concept of "plans" from Miller, Galanter and Pribram (1960) and the concept of "cognitive dissonance" from Festinger (1957). The key elements in the model are premises, plans, and cognitive dissonance. Premises are beliefs and expectations about self and the world, for example, self-perceptions, attributes of occupational roles, needs, perceptions of social structure, and things important to the decision maker. Plans are not explicitly defined, but apparently they denote an image of sequential actions associated with entering an occupational role. Cognitive dissonance accounts for a method of testing out plans against current premises.

Hilton's decision-making process is initiated by an input from the environment that alters the decision maker's present plans. The decision maker "tests" to see if the input has raised dissonance sufficiently above the satisfactory threshold-that is, whether an imbalance or inconsistency among plans and premises has been created. If dissonance has been raised above threshold, the decision maker examines his premises, and if there is no imbalance, he continues acting on the present plan for action. If the premises can be revised, they are, and then submitted (with the plans) for a dissonance test, and the cycle is complete. If, on the other hand, premises cannot be revised, the person searches his stored knowledge or his surroundings for another behavioral plan. Future work roles, not previously tested as plans, are scanned to find one that may now "pass the test." The new plan is tested and, if dissonance is below threshold, it becomes the controlling plan for future action.

Hilton's mechanism for testing cognitive dissonance determines whether the outcomes of tentative plans and/or premises remain acceptable or not, that is, whether dissonance is below or above the threshold level. The operation of the mechanism assumes that people classify outcomes dichotomously as satisfactory or unsatisfactory. The basis for such an assumption rests on Simon's (1955) critique of classical economic models. He suggests substituting "satisficing" for maximizing in problem-solving models where imperfect knowledge is available. Simon argues that the decision maker does not have enough information to order the value of all possible outcomes at one time, therefore the decision maker simply determines whether each is satisfactory or not as he considers them one at a time.

Vroom's Model: Vroom (1964) outlined a cognitive decision-making model that included algebraic equations to define principal concepts: the concept of Valence, the concept of Expectancy, and the concept of Force. Vroom drew upon psychological theories where similar concepts had been employed, for example, Lewin (1951), Rotter (1955), Peak (1955), Davidson, Suppes, and Siegel (1957), Atkinson (1957), and Tolman (1959).

Valence refers to the decision maker's preferences among outcomes (future states of nature) or, more specifically, to the affective orientations toward particular outcomes. It is the anticipated satisfaction from an outcome, as contrasted with the actual satisfaction. An outcome acquires Valence from the decision maker's conception of its instrumentality for attaining more distant and prized goals. Instrumentality is a belief about the association between immediate and eventual outcomes. The mathematical definition of Valence says that Outcome A's Valence is a function of the summed products of affect associated with prized, distant goals and the cognized instrumentality of A for attaining each goal.

Expectancy refers to the degree to which a decision maker believes outcomes are probable. It is defined as "the momentary belief concerning the likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome". Expectancies range from subjective certainty that an outcome will follow an act to subjective certainty that it will not. Expectancy is differentiated from Valence in that the former is an action-outcome association and the latter is an outcome-outcome association.

Behavior, or the decision commitment, is controlled by the direction and magnitude of forces to perform particular and competing acts. Force is the hypothetical cognitive factor that controls behavior-it is the product of Valence and Expectancy, and consequently controls which alternative is acted upon. It is a function of the sum of the products of Valences and Expectancies over all outcomes.

Hsu's Model: Hsu (1970) presented a VDM model based on familiar concepts-largely those used by Vroom-but included major variations in the relationships among concepts. The concept of Force (as defined by Vroom) is employed by Hsu to describe all alternative occupations considered and is assumed to have maximum value for the decision-maker's unique vocational goal. The vocational goal is defined as the algebraic sum of Valence-Expectancy products of all outcomes for an occupation where the Expectancy of each outcome is unity. The essential difference between Vroom and Hsu is that the Hsu model suggests a final step in the VDM process where the Force for vocational choices is subtracted from the Force for the vocational goal. Hsu assumes that the decision maker is attempting to minimize the disparity between a choice and a goal.

Hsu assumes that the decision-maker can be represented as a "system" where information in the form of occupational values, occupational information, and evaluative information about the self serves as the environmental "input" and occupational choice is the "output."

Fletcher's Model: Although his purpose was not to explain decision, Fletcher (1966) "roughs out" a VDM paradigm based on conceptual learning ideas. He assumes that decision processes are not wholly rational and that commitment is as much a function of timing as it is of the data available to the decision-maker. Motivation for VDM is, initially, to satisfy basic human needs but later may derive from curiosity or conceptual conflict.

Fletcher hypothesized that the formulations for career decisions are concepts about the future. These concepts are based on experiences associated with one or more basic human needs (for example, Maslow's hierarchy). A career concept system is the composite of several concepts, such as self-concept, interests, attitudes, and values all derived from experiences that the decision-maker associates with a given career alternative. Each career concept has an affect charge defined as the particular feeling or emotional tone associated with, or actually a part of, the concept. Affect charges for a complex career concept system may be the summed resultant of several affect charges related to several experiences both positive and negative. The career chosen is that one for which the career concept's affect charge is the highest at the time of decision.

Career concepts have two additional dimensions, with the opposite poles being degree of specificity contrasted with degree of generalization and degree of concreteness vs. degree of abstractness. Specific concepts are directly related to particular experiences but become generalized as they interact with other concepts. The movement from concrete to abstract concepts follows an inferential process toward higher levels of classification identity.

Other Descriptive Models: Loughary (1965), Dolliver (1967), and Simons (1966) have each described aspects of the VDM process but have not proposed complete models.
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